in 1930, Bloomfield stated that the important focus of language learning are phonology and morphology, and then in 1950, Chomsky expanded the material and improved the level in syntax. Katz in 1960 started to integrated the language study with the meaning of the language (semantics concept). Moreover in 1970, Lakoff, Ross, et all believed that the context of language is important in study a language.
The Definitions of Pragmatics
Charless Morris : The study of relation of sign and its interpreters
Levinson : The study of language use
Moreover, we can conclude that pragmatics is the study of language that use in one community that is depended of the context or the situation of the language use
Meaning Levels by Gilbert Hontmant
1. Meaning as the evidential and observational use.
2. Meaning as circularity from at least two direction
3. Meaning as speech act potential.
The differences of Semantic and Pragmatics
Semantics
PRAGMATICS
Contextual Independent meaning
Contextual dependent meaning
Relation between sign to the object it represent
The relation between the sign to interpreters
Form meaning
form-function
The differences between the pertinent concepts in semiotics :
ØSentence is a group of word that consist of Subject +Predicate ±Objeck ±Complement and has a complete thought identify by final intonation. E.g. Go! Or Get out!
ØIndependent linguistics item
ØSentence is only a predicate. E.g. go!
Types of sentences divided into 5 types based on the characteristics
Phrase is a group of word that fills a slot at clause level. This slot defining based on its function, so every phrase has its function. The place of phrase in the sentence is defined by this function. That is why, the phrase it also called as a group of word that has one function in a clause level. The phrase can be a long group of word but it must be not contain a verb. For example, The old black man in the roof which has beautiful hair.
The phrase divided into two categories:
1.Endocentric Phrase is a phrase that has a parallel distribution with its element. It has a head and modifier. It consists of :
Research Problem : Selecting and Defining Problems
Selection :
~ Identify a general problem area that is related or relevant to your area of expertise and of particular interest to you. e.g. the interference of L1 in L2 pronunciation, the use of reviews to increase retention, and bilingualism
~ Narrow down the general problem area to specific researchable problem. A well defined, manageable problem will result in well-defined, manageable study, the second problem may be generated into “ the comparative effectiveness of immediate vs. delayed review on the retention of structure concepts”, and “the effect of review games on the retention of vocabulary words by second graders.
Source :
The most meaningful problems are generally derived from theory
~ A major source of non-theoretical problems is the researcher’s personal experiences
~ Studies that can be replicated.
~ The literature; Overviews, summaries, and specific studies
Characteristics :
~ it is interesting, holding the research’s the interest throughout the research process
~ it is researchable, can be investigated through collection and analysis data
~ it is significant, having theoretical and practical significance in improving and understanding education.
~ it is ethical, not involving practices that might embarrass or harm participants.
~ it is manageable, must be a good problem for you that you can adequately investigate given (1) your current level of research skill,(2) available resource and (3) time and other restriction
Formulating and Stating Hypothesis
* Hypothesis is the researcher’s prediction of the research findings, still need to be proven
Thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject. The thesis statement will tells the readers how the writer will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion. In other word, it is a road map for the paper; what to expect from the rest of the paper. It is also usually a single sentence somewhere in the first paragraph that presents the writer’s argument to the reader, but it is often in the last sentence of the introduction.
There some phrase/clauses that indicate the Thesis Statement itself for example :
~ The cause of this problem are…
~ This method (mention the method) is effective or efficacious in enhancing/developing …
Normally when we say "I feel stressed" it means "I feel anxious". Stress is a kind of worried feeling about life or work. But there is another kind of stress that actually helps us understand. This other kind of stress is an accent that we make on certain syllables and words when speaking English.
In some languages, for example Japanese, people say each syllable with equal force. But in English, and some other languages, we put a big force (stress) on some syllables and no force on other syllables or words. This can make it difficult for speakers of other languages to understand English that is spoken quickly. Of course, for native speakers it is not difficult - in fact, stress actually helps native speakers understand each other. So it is very important.
We shall talk here about WORD STRESS (stress on a syllable inside a word) and SENTENCE STRESS (stress on words inside a sentence).
WORD STRESS
Word stress is like a golden key to speaking and understanding English.
If you do not already know about word stress, you can try to learn about it. This is one of the best ways for you to understand spoken English - especially English spoken fast.
What is word stress?
Take 3 words: photograph, photographer and photographic. Do they sound the same when spoken? No. Because ONE syllable in each word is STRESSED (stronger than the others).
PHOtograph
phoTOgrapher
photoGRAPHic
This happens in ALL words with 2 or more syllables: TEACHer, JaPAN, CHINa, aBOVE, converSAtion, INteresting, imPORtant, deMAND, etCETera, etCETera, etCETera
The syllables that are not stressed are "weak" or "small" or "quiet". Native speakers of English listen for the STRESSED syllables, not the weak syllables. If you use word stress in your speech, you will instantly and automatically improve your pronunciation and your comprehension.
If you have an English teacher, you can ask her to help you understand word stress. Or you can try to hear the stress in individual words each time you listen to English - on the radio, or in films for example. Your first step is to HEAR and recognise it. After that, you can USE it.
Two important rules about word stress:
One word, one stress
The stress is always on a vowel
SENTENCE STRESS
Sentence stress is another golden key for speaking and understanding English. With sentence stress, some words in a sentence are STRESSED (loud) and other words are weak (quiet). Look at the following sentence:
We want to go.
Do we say every word with the same stress or force? No. We make the important words BIG and the unimportant words small. What are the important words in this sentence? Yes, that's right: WANT and GO.
We WANT to GO.
We WANT to GO to WORK.
We DON'T WANT to GO to WORK.
We DON'T WANT to GO to WORK at NIGHT.
Now that you know that word stress exists, you can try to learn more about it.
You should KNOW that SENtence and WORD STRESS are VERy imPORtant !!!
This Material taken from TEFL Books : TEFL/TESL: Teaching English as a foreign or second language,Peace Corps,BRENDA BOWMAN, GRACE BURKART, and BARBARA ROBSON
This chapter examines ten different approaches or methods, and identifies the choices offered by each of these ten. The approaches or methods are divided into: Traditional language teaching Grammar Translation Method Direct Method Audiolingual Method
Communicative language teaching
Communicative Approach Total Physical Response
Natural Approach
Competency-Based Approach
Innovative language teaching Silent Way Community Language Learning Suggestopedia
In this chapter the comments on each of the ten approaches or methods are divided into three
parts. First, comes the section on background. This section gives a short history of each method
and will give you an idea of the developments in English language teaching over the past fifty
years. Second, the section on distinguishing features highlights the special features of each
method and approach. Third, the section on the impact on your classroom and your teaching
concentrates on ideas in each method which may be helpful to you. This section owes much to
conversations with TEFL Volunteers like yourself. These Volunteers, having faced initial
hesitations about which method to use, have suggested the positive and practical ways in which
you can judge the benefits and impact different methods will have on your English lessons.
Traditional language teaching
The Grammar Translation Method, the Direct Method, and the Audiolingual Method have been
included not to give you a history of language teaching, but because they still strongly influence
English instruction in many parts of the world. You will doubtless come across educationalists,
now in decision-making positions, who have successfully learned English using one of these
approaches. And their thinking on language learning is likely to be influenced by their experience.
Belittling these approaches as counter-communicative or out of date may arouse their suspicion
of your abilities as a teacher and may diminish your ability to eventually bring about change.
Those of you teaching English as a secondary project may find that your older students want to use the approach they knew at school. Dismissing this attachment will not help you develop the productive relationship you want to establish with your adult students. A fundamental principle in teaching is moving from the known to the unknown. In this case, it means taking into account your students’ previous experience and using some of the activities from methodologies they feel comfortable with, at least in the initial stages.
Many countries have limited funds for buying textbooks. Consequently you may find yourself
working from a syllabus based on a twenty-five year old textbook which reflects only one
approach. As newcomers your role is a delicate one. On the one hand, you do not want to offend
with your criticisms, but on the other, you do not want to lose sight of your goal to transfer to your
colleagues your technical skills and your innovative ideas. A good strategy to follow in the opening
stages of your service is to be seen as covering the syllabus? using some of the activities from the
prescribed methodology. Once you have established with your colleagues and students that you
respect the traditions and good points of the system, you may he more successful in winning their
confidence and in bringing about changes which lead to the use of other more effective teaching
methods.
Grammar translation method
Background
The Grammar Translation Method looks upon language learning as an intellectual activity. Until
twenty years ago, this method was commonly used in Europe to teach Latin in schools. Those
countries which were closely associated with Britain or France sometimes still bear the traces of
this association in the use of modified forms of Grammar Translation in language classrooms.
Lexical meaning is the meaning of a word that we can find in dictionary. It is the independent meaning that have no relation with others meaning that probably will occur when the word take place in a sentence.
2. Grammatical Meaning
Grammatical meaning is the meaning of a word depends on its function or its position in a sentence. The grammatical meaning of a word is not the individual meaning or the dictionary meaning but it has meaning because the rule of grammar or the function of the word in sentence. For example: books has meaning many book, +s indicates that it has a plural noun meaning.
3. Sentence Meaning
A sentence meaning is the meaning of a group of meaningful words to express a statement, question, exclamation, request, command or suggestion. We take the meaning from the group of the word as one union not one by one meaning from each word.
4. Speaker Meaning
A speaker meaning is the meaning from someone who say something. When someone wants to say something, it means she/he wants to say the speaker meaning. What the speaker says will affect the sentence meaning that using in speaking, and finally it comes to the understanding of the receiver. Sometimes, there is a misunderstanding between the speaker and the information receiver or the listener because we don’t aware that Speaker Meaning are consist and we need to consider it as an important aspect to avoid more or less meaningless.
5. Utterance Meaning
The Utterance Meaning is the meaning of the speaker’s utterance in a conversational context. The meaning of the utterance usually depends on the situation or the condition of the speaker in the conversational context, so we cannot put a fixed meaning for one utterance.
6. Referential Meaning
Referential meaning is a meaning that mentions or points an event or situation to give more explanation. The referent of an expression is essentially ‘the thing in the world that it points to’.
7. Social Meaning
Social Meaning is the meaning that conveyed by language and has relation with human society, the interaction of the individual and the group, or the human as members of society. The culture background of the society will influence the social meaning that use in one community.
8. Affective Meaning
The affective meaning of the word is connected to a person's personal emotions and how that would influence word choice. Therefore each individual will have a different affective meaning for a word. Only the person who uses the word will be aware of the particular affective meaning that they hold with the word. In affective meaning, language is used to express personal feelings or attitude to the listener or to the subject matter of his discourse.
The first meeting from Syntax Class in English Education B 2009. Here are the resume of the lecture ;
There are some definition of syntax :
1. Syntax is the study of sentences
2. Syntax is the of the construction of : Phrases, Clauses and Sentences
3. Syntax is the study of the Grammatical Unit
From the first definition we can say that in syntax we will study more about sentences and its elements. while in the third definition, we must aware that us education student, of course we will be a teacher some day and we need to explain more about the sentence and also its grammar. For example, we our student ask us : “why the sentence : I go to school using go without +s/es while She goes to school using go +es. Of course we need to explain in clearly.
From the second definition, there 3 elements of syntax, those are :
1. Phrases
2. Clauses
3. Sentences
Phrase is a group of word. because phrase is a group of words so we must know what word is. Word is a combination of morpheme that has meaning, for example book. In this case the word book will become ambiguous word, where in can be a noun word or a verb. So, we need to see the context or the structure of the word in the sentence. When we say this is a book, we use book as noun, but when we say I book the room, we use book as verb.
The phrase is group of word that on component explain the other. For example : a book and the book. When we say note book it not a phrase because it is a noun even thought it has 2 words.
Before we study more about phrase, first we need too study about WC. It is not Water Closet but it is Word classification. WC is divided in to 2 categories, man and women,,hehehe,,sorry,,just kidding. WC is divided into 2 categories :
Beberapa kesulitan dasar dalam penerjemahan injil dapat diketahui melalui fakta bahwa seringkali orang-orang memiliki sedikit kesalahan dalam memandang pembaca terjemahan seperti halnya dengan sumber bahasa. Sebab itu, untuk menghasilkan text yang tujuannya adalah kesamaan respon, penerjemah seringkali harus merubah cara mereka memandang bahasa di saat mereka bekerja. Hal ini tidak selalu termasuk perubahan dalam bersikap yang cenderung menempatkan sumber bahasa sebagai pemujaan teologi dan tunduk terhadapnya dalam ketundukan buta. Tapi seringkali membutuhkan sedikit pemikiran kembali yang radikal terhadap sikap kepada penerima bahasa (pembaca), bahkan jika hal itu masih dalam bahasa ibu.
Setiap bahasa memiliki keunikan tersendiri
Hal yang paling utama, adalah pentingnya untuk mengetahui bahwa setiap bahasa memiliki keunikan tersendiri. Dimana, setiap bahasa pasti memiliki karakteristik khusus yang memberikan sebuah karakter yang special, contohnya, kapasitas pembentukan kata, pola yang unik dari aturan penyusunan kata, teknik untuk menghubungkan clausa kedalam kalimat, tanda baca dan bentuk tanda baca dari puisi, peribahasa, dan lagu. Masing –masing bahasa kaya akan kosa kata bergantung pada kebudayaan, kepiawaian orang-orang contoh, sapi perah (Anuaks di sudan), ubi (Ponapeans di Micronesia) berburu dan menangkap ikan (Piros di Peru), atau teknologi (dunia barat). Beberapa bahasa kaya akan kata – kata pengandaian. Yang lain sepertinya diadaptasi khusus didalam perkembangan bahasa kiasan, dan masih banyak lagi sumber kekayaan sastra, baik yang tertulis maupun lisan.
Untuk berkomunikasi secara efektif seseorang harus menghormati keunikan dari setiap bahasa.
Daripada mempermasalahkan kekurangan beberapa segi dalam bahasa, seseorang harus menghormati karakteristik dari pembaca dan mengoptimalkan potensialitas bahasa sejauh atau seluas mungkin. Sayangnya, pada beberapa instansi penerjemahan telah mencoba untuk merubah bahasa. Sebagai contoh, salah seorang missionaries di Amerika latin bersikeras untuk memasukkan kata kerja pasif voice kedalam bahasa yang tidak mengenal bentuk seperti itu. Tentu saja hal itu tidak berhasil. Seseorang harus benar – benar menerima kenyataan bahwa banyak bahasa yang tidak mempunyai kata kerja pasif. Mereka selalu memilih untuk menyampaikan suatu tindakan hanya dengan kata – kata aktif.<>
Daripada memaksa struktur formal suatu bahasa ke bahasa lain, penerjemahan efektif lebih menyiapkan beberapa perubahan yang dibutuhkan untuk menghasilkan bentuk tata bahasa khusus dari pembaca terjemahan.
Hal apapun yang dapat dikatakan dalam suatu bahasa dapat dikatakan dalam bahasa lain, kecuali bentuk atau pola yang merupakan elemen dasar dari sebuah pesan.
Bagi kebanyakan orang potensial dan kesamaan bahasa mungkin bagian yang paling diperdebatkan dalam penerjemahan. Dia tidak melihat bagaimana orang yang tidak mengetahui salju dapat mengerti sebuah pesan dalam injil yang berbunyi tentang “Seputih Salju”jika seseorang tidak mengenal salju, bagaimana mungkin mereka punya kata – kata seperti itu? Dan jika mereka tidak punya kata – kata untuk itu, lalu bagaimana injil dapat diterjemahkan? Jawaban pertanyaan seperti ini sangat kompleks dan bervariatif. Kondisi yang pertama, banyak orang mempunyai kata untuk salju, bahkan jika mereka tidak pernah mengalaminya secara langsung, untuk mereka yang telah mendengar kejadian tersebut. Kedua, di sisi lain yang berbeda, orang – orang yang tidak mengetahui salju, tapi mereka memiliki “embun beku” dan mereka berbicara mengenai keduanya tapi dengan maksud yang sama. Ketiga, banyak bahasa memiliki kesamaan idiom, contohnya “ putih seperti bulu bangau ,” atau “seputih jamur” (jika ada jamur khusus yang berwarna putih); atau mereka mungkin tidak menggunakan kiasan untuk mengungkapkan konsep “ Seputih Salju,” seperti “sangat, sangat putih.” Intinya adalah bahwa salju adalah objek tidak begitu penting dalam pesan.
Beberapa orang mungkin keberatan, meskipun, dan bersikeras bahwa tanpa adanya kata yang menggambarkan salju, penerjemahan tidak cukup memadai, untuk semua hal yang tidak dikomunikasikan, ketepatan arti dari sumber orisinalnya akan menyimpang. Tentu saja tidak ada komunikasi dalam satu bahasa sekalipun, meskipun dalam bahasa tunggal sekalipun ( Tak ada dua orangpun yang memahami kata dengan pemahaman yang persis sama.
English literature had been used as long as human life. In many ways of human life usually we don't aware that literature became part of our way to interact with other people.
Long time ago, people used a picture to expressed their daily activity. Because they had not know to write, they used some simbol or sign to tell their history for their next generation. For example in Leang-Leang cave,bantimurung Maros regency there is a picture of palm in its wall. By that picture, archaeologist can get information about the caveman or people who ever lived in that cave, beside that from their rubbish the archaeologist can find information about their equiepment in kitchen like plate etc.
After that past, the human begun to know the way to write and used a symbol as a letter.
In the first time of english period, we call it as old period, english used to introduce the religion. By using literary word, the old period tried to make an epic or heroic story so the people can know the story later. We can see the circumstance in old period by watching Lord of The Ring movie, there is a chapter when the actor prayed to the GOD as like as the GOD was in front of him, and by using literary word he praised the GOD.
In the middle period known well with King Arthur story. After that, the curch had dominated the all side of human life, include the to decide the king of england kingdom. The England king couldn't be a king if the pope didn't look favorably on his position. This time became a great power of church, the all side, like art,painting,teaching and many other had to refer of the church rule. The work art of the artist would known well if it joined the church rule, in this chase, the all of art work transform from bibble, that's way there were so many statue and painting were told story in the bible.
English education is one department of language and literature faculty. In all chase it's like another department but the students of english department are concent or focus on study about english. English department campuss is located in parangtambung and consist of 3 buildings,it also become one of the biggest department in State University of makassar.
Even like that, there are some classic problems in english department, some of the lecturers do not attend the meeting or teaching and learning process. In this semester there some lecturer never come to meet their student in the class even now it's the second week of learning and teaching process.
Some student still happy with this moment, but the other student very sad because they can not study in this two weeks.
When we try to find information about the reason, some of staff in english department say that there few lecturer went to Bogor and will come back on sunday and the rest have another schedule. We do not know exactly is this important for student or not, because we are student just want to take our right to get some skill or knowledge from the lecturer. Now we just wait for the result and maybe the time when my lecturer consider their duty as a teacher.
Time is yours!
